14 Tiberius calls for the Roman Senate to accept him as the successor of Emperor Augustus 642 Arab forces under Amr ibn al-'As conquer Alexandria 1048 Battle of Kapetron: night battle between invading Seljuk Turks and Byzantine-Georgian forces of Constantine IX, Byzantines drive back Turks but unable to stop huge plunder 1156 Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa issues the "Privilegium Minus" decree, elevating Austria to a duchy 1176 At the Battle of Myriokephalon, the Byzantines fail to recover Anatolia from Turkish rule 1394 King Charles VI orders the expulsion of Jews from France [1] 1462 Battle of Świecino [Battle of Żarnowiec]: Kingdom of Poland decisively defeats a 2,700-man army of the Teutonic Knights near Krokowa, Poland during the Thirteen Years' War 1584 Ghent surrenders to Duke of Parma 1595 Pope Clement VIII recognizes Henry IV as King of France 1598 Dutch sailors claim the island of Mauritius for the Netherlands and name it after Maurice, Prince of Orange and Count of Nassau 1629 Dutch ship Sardam arrives to rescue those shipwrecked on the Batavia off the coast of Western Australia, discovering a group led by Jeronimus Cornelisz has murdered 124 of the survivors [1] 1631 Battle of Breitenfeld: King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden defeats Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly 1644 French troops occupy Mainz 1678 France and Spain sign the Treaties of Nijmegen 1683 Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is the first to report the existence of bacteria 1691 Massachusetts Bay Colony granted new charter 1730 Turkish coup under Mahmud I; Sultan Ahmed III flees 1737 Georg-August University opens in Göttingen 1745 Edinburgh occupied by Jacobites under Charles Edward Stuart (aka the Young Pretender or Bonny Prince Charlie) 1776 Fortress Presidio of San Francisco is founded in New Spain to gain a foothold in Alta California and the San Francisco Bay 1778 First treaty between the US and Indian tribes is signed at Fort Pitt 1787 Prussian troops conquer Gorinchem 1787 US Constitution is signed by delegates at the Philadelphia Convention 1789 William Herschel discovers Saturn's moon Mimas using his 40-foot reflector telescope 1809 Treaty of Fredrikshamn is signed between Sweden and Russia, ending the Finnish War and ceding the territory of Finland to Russia 1819 First whaling ship arrives in Hawaii 1835 Charles Darwin lands on Chatham Island in the Galapagos Archipelago 1849 Harriet Tubman is the first to escape slavery in Maryland with two of her brothers 1850 Fourth great fire in San Francisco 1859 James Donnelly is sentenced to hang for murdering Patrick Farrell, but a petition for clemency reduces his sentence to 7 years in Kingston Penitentiary 1859 Joshua Abraham Norton, an English-born resident of San Francisco, proclaims himself His Imperial Majesty Emperor Norton I, Emperor of the United States of America 1861 First class for escaped slaves taught by Mary Peake at Fortress Monroe Virginia (now Hampton University). 1862 American Civil War: The Allegheny Arsenal explosion results in the single largest civilian disaster during the war; 78 workers killed 1862 Battle of Antietam [Battle of Sharpsburg]: Bloodiest day in the American Civil War with 22,000 dead, wounded, or missing in the first major battle on Union soil 1862 Battle of Munfordville, Kentucky, US Colonel J. Wilder surrenders city 1862 The Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, evacuated by the Union forces 1863 Pope Pius IX's encyclical On Persecution is published in New Granada 1864 American Civil War: Grant approves Sheridan's plan for Shenandoah Valley Campaign 1871 Mont Cenis railway tunnel in Switzerland opens 1872 Phillip W. Pratt patents his sprinkler system for extinguishing fires 1873 Nineteen students attend the opening class at Ohio State University 1876 Race riots in South Carolina 1899 First British troops leave Bombay for South Africa 1900 In the USA, anthracite coal miners go on strike for better wages until October 25, by which time the owners are persuaded that their stance is harming President McKinley's campaign 1900 Philippine–American War: Filipinos under Juan Cailles defeat Americans under Colonel Benjamin F. Cheatham at Mabitac 1900 The Commonwealth of Australia is proclaimed 1901 Battle at Elands River Port: Boer General Jan Smuts destroys British 17th Lancers unit 1901 Battle of Blood River Port: Boer commandos led by Louis Botha defeat a British Mounted Infantry force commanded by Major Hubert Gough 1902 US protests anti-semitism in Romania 1903 Boston Pilgrims clinch AL pennant, beating Cleveland 14-3 1906 Playing as "Sullivan," Columbia University junior Eddie Collins debuts with the A's 1908 Thomas Selfridge becomes first fatality of powered flight, as a passenger in an Orville Wright demonstration flight in Fort Myer, Virginia 1909 Denis Peyrony and Louis Capitan discover the skull of an adult male Neanderthal (La Ferrassie 1) during excavations in a rock shelter near La Ferrassie, France 1911 First airplane flight across the US from New York to Pasadena, California, in 82 hours and 4 minutes 1912 Center fielder Casey Stengel debuts with Brooklyn and hits four singles 1914 Andrew Fisher becomes Prime Minister of Australia for the third time 1916 40,000 Amsterdam demonstrators demand general voting right 1916 World War I flying ace, the Red Baron of the German Luftstreitkräfte, wins his first aerial combat near Cambrai, France 1917 American baseball shortstop Honus Wagner retires at 43; Pirates retire his #33 1920 Cardinals set a record of 12 consecutive hits in the 4th (10) and 5th (2) innings 1920 National Football League is born in Canton, Ohio; 12 teams pay $100 each to join American Professional Football Association; renamed the NFL in 1922 1922 Cyclist Piet Moeskops becomes world sprint champion 1923 Sutton Vane's "Outward Bound" premieres in London 1924 Italy signs treaty of Rapallo 1926 Hurricane hits Miami and Palm Beach, Florida, killing approximately 450 1927 Charles Lindbergh visits San Francisco 1928 Boston Braves pitcher Ray Boggs hits three batters in one inning during his fourth and final major league appearance in a 15-5 loss to the Chicago Cubs 1928 San Felipe Segundo/Okeechobee hurricane makes landfall in West Palm Beach-Lake Okeechobee, Florida, as a Category 4 storm, killing 2,500-3,000 and causing $25 million in damages 1929 British troops begin withdrawal from occupied Germany 1931 Boston Red Sox outfielder Earl Webb sets a record with 65 doubles en route to 67 MLB doubles 1931 First LP record demonstrated by RCA Victor in New York City; venture fails 1931 Operetta "Viktoria & Her Hussar" by Paul Abraham (adapted for English by Harry Graham) premieres in London at the Palace Theatre 1934 RCA Victor releases the first 33 1/3 rpm recording: Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra, led by Leopold Stokowski at the Philadelphia Academy of Music 1934 USSR joins League of Nations (Netherlands, Switzerland, and Portugal vote no) 1935 Manuel L. Quezon y Molina is elected the second President of the Philippines 1937 First NFL game in Washington, D.C.; Redskins defeat NY Giants 13-3 1938 British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain leaves Munich 1939 German U-29 sinks British aircraft carrier Courageous; 519 die 1939 Poland's President Ignacy Mościcki and Prime Minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski flee to Romania 1939 Soviet Union invades Eastern Poland, allowing Germans to advance west and taking 217,000 Poles prisoner without a formal declaration of war 1939 Taisto Mäki of Finland becomes the first man to run 10,000 meters in under 30 minutes with a time of 29:52.6 in Helsinki 1940 Adolf Hitler indefinitely postpones Operation Sealion, the planned German invasion of Great Britain 1940 Nazi police commander Heinrich Himmler rules that all Polish workers must wear yellow "P" badges to distinguish themselves from Germans 1941 Meeting between Danish physicist Niels Bohr and German head of the nuclear energy project Werner Heisenberg in Copenhagen to discuss nuclear weapons 1941 Stan Musial makes his major league debut for the St. Louis Cardinals, going 2-for-4 1941 The New Zealand Labour Party abolishes the death penalty; it is reintroduced by the National government in 1950 before being finally removed from the statute book in 1961) 1941 World War II: A decree issued by the Soviet State Committee of Defense, restoring Vsevobuch "Universal compulsory military training of the citizens of the USSR" in the face of the "Great Patriotic War" 1943 Load of "ammunition in transit" explodes at Norfolk Naval Air Station 1943 World War II: Soviet city of Bryansk is liberated from Nazi control 1944 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill travels to US 1944 Dutch begin railroad strike against German occupiers 1944 Operation Market Garden: In the largest airborne operation of WWII, Allied paratroopers land in the Netherlands in a failed attempt to capture the Arnhem bridge over the Rhine 1947 Jackie Robinson is named Rookie of the Year by Sporting News 1947 James Forrestal sworn in as first US Secretary of Defense 1948 KCOP TV Channel 13 in Los Angeles/Hollywood, CA (IND) begins broadcasting 1948 WLS TV Channel 7 in Chicago, IL (ABC) begins broadcasting 1949 128 die as fire engulfs Canadian passenger steamer Noronic in Toronto 1949 North Atlantic Treaty Council meets for the first time 1949 Third Cannes Film Festival: "The Third Man," directed by Carol Reed, wins the Grand Prix du Festival International du Film 1949 WFAA TV Channel 8 in Dallas-Fort Worth, TX (ABC) begins broadcasting 1950 San Francisco 49ers (formerly AAFC) play their first NFL game and lose 21-17 1951 Romanian bishop A. Pacha of Timisoara sentenced to 18 years 1952 "I Am an American Day" and "Constitution Day" are renamed "Citizenship Day" 1953 Ernie Banks becomes the Chicago Cubs' first African American player 1954 "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding is published by Faber and Faber in London 1954 In a quick rematch at Yankee Stadium, NYC, Rocky Marciano knocks out Ezzard Charles in the eighth round to retain his world heavyweight boxing title 1955 Future MLB Hall of Famer Baltimore Oriole Brooks Robinson goes 2-4 in his first game 1956 Black students enter Clay Elementary School in Kentucky 1956 Yankees clinch pennant number 22 with Mantle's 50th home run of the year 1957 KETV TV Channel 7 in Omaha, NB (ABC) begins broadcasting 1957 Thailand military coup under Marshal Sarit Thanarat 1957 The North East Humanists group is founded in Newcastle upon Tyne 1958 US performs a nuclear test at Nevada Test Site 1959 Scott Crossfield completes the first powered flight in the X-15 1959 Transit 1A, the first navigational satellite, launches but fails to orbit 1959 Typhoon kills 2,000 in Japan and Korea 1960 Cuba nationalizes US banks 1961 American sitcom "Car 54, Where are You?" starring Fred Gwynne, Joe E. Ross, and Al Lewis premieres on NBC-TV 1961 Fran Tarkenton plays his first NFL game against the Chicago Bears, coming off the bench to lead the Vikings to a 37-13 victory and becomes the only QB to throw four touchdown passes in his first career game 1961 Minnesota Vikings' first NFL game; beat Chicago Bears 37-13 1961 Samuel Beckett 's "Happy Days" premieres in NYC 1961 USSR performs a nuclear test at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in northeastern Kazakhstan 1962 Justice Department files first suit to end segregation in public schools 1962 US space officials announce selection of nine new astronauts 1963 Television drama series "The Fugitive" starring David Janssen, premieres on ABC TV 1963 Train strikes makeshift bus full of migrant workers, killing 32 1964 American sitcom "Bewitched," starring Elizabeth Montgomery , premieres on ABC TV 1964 Motown Records releases The Supremes ' single "Baby Love"; written and produced by the Holland-Dozier-Holland team, it becomes their second consecutive #1 record 1964 National Museum of Anthropology, the largest museum in Latin America, inaugurated by President Adolfo López Mateos in Mexico City [1] 1964 The Beatles are paid a record $150,000 by baseball team owner Charles Finley for a concert at Municipal Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri, on a scheduled day off; the group adds the song "Kansas City"/"Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey" to their standard setlist, much to the delight of the crowd

1964 Yankee Mickey Mantle gets career hits #1999, 2000, and 2001 and his 450th home run in a 6-2 victory over the Los Angeles Angels in New York 1965 CBS premieres WWII sitcom "Hogan's Heroes" 1965 WPHL TV Channel 17 in Philadelphia, PA (IND) begins broadcasting 1966 "Mission Impossible" premieres on CBS-TV 1966 Cleveland pitchers set an AL record by striking out 19 batters in the first 9 innings 1967 American rock band "The Doors" appear for the first and last time on "The Ed Sullivan Show" as singer Jim Morrison reneges on a promise to change a lyric, prompting producers to offer no further invitations [1] 1967 British rock band "The Who" makes its US television debut, performing "My Generation" on "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour" and detonating an unusually large amount of flash powder in Keith Moon 's drum kit [1] 1967 Mount Washington Cog Railway train derails, killing 8 (NH) 1967 New Orleans Saints' first NFL game; they lose to the LA Rams 27-13 1968 San Francisco Giants Gaylord Perry no-hits St Louis Cardinals 1-0 1968 Zond 5 completes circumnavigation of Moon 1970 American TV variety program "The Flip Wilson Show" debuts on NBC-TV and runs for four seasons, winning two Emmy Awards 1970 Jordan launches offensive against guerrilla army 1970 WSWP TV channel 9 in Grandview, WV (PBS) begins broadcasting 1972 BART begins passenger service in San Francisco 1972 Tanzanian troops march into Uganda 1972 TV comedy series "M*A*S*H", adapted from the movie, starring Alan Alda , Loretta Swit , Wayne Rogers, and McLean Stevenson, debuts on CBS in the US and runs for 11 years, garnering 14 Emmy Awards and 1 Peabody 1973 Stephen Sondheim 's musical "A Little Night Music" transfers from the Shubert to the Majestic Theatre, NYC 1974 Courageous (US) beats Southern Cross (Australia) in the 23rd America's Cup 1976 Amnesty International receives the Erasmus Prize 1976 British punk rock band the Sex Pistols play before a captive audience at Chelmsford Prison, Essex, England 1976 NASA publicly unveils the Space Shuttle Enterprise in Palmdale, California, named after the starship Enterprise from the "Star Trek" TV series, with members of the cast attending 1976 Polydor/Atlantic releases Ringo Starr 's fifth studio album "Ringo's Rotogravure" 1977 British-American band Fleetwood Mac 's "Rumours" album is #1 for the 19th consecutive week 1977 China performs nuclear test at Lop Nor, PRC 1977 Dave Kingman hits his first Yankee home run, and Reggie hits two more 1978 30th Emmy Awards: "All in the Family," Ed Asner, and Sada Thompson win 1978 After 6 losses to the New York Yankees in September, the Boston Red Sox finally score a 7-3 win over their arch rivals at Yankee Stadium 1978 Anwar Sadat , Menachem Begin , and Jimmy Carter sign the Camp David Accords , frameworks for peace in the Middle East and between Egypt and Israel 1979 Pietro Mennea runs a world record 200 m in 19.72 seconds 1979 Royals' George Brett becomes the 6th player to have 20 doubles, triples, and home runs in a season 1979 Russian Bolshoi Ballet dancers Leonid and Valentina Kozlov granted political asylum in US 1980 Bette Midler 's concert film "Divine Madness," directed by Michael Ritchie, premieres 1980 Iraq breaks the 1975 treaty with Iran and proclaims sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway 1980 Iraq under Saddam Hussein signs accord with Algeria 1980 Oakland A's Rick Langford is removed with two outs in the ninth inning, ending his consecutive complete-game streak at 22 1980 Polish workers, under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa , found the Solidarity movement at the Gdańsk Shipyard 1980 South Korean opposition leader Kim Dae-jung sentenced to death on false charges of sedition and conspiracy (sentence later commuted) 1981 MLB Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Fernando Valenzuela sets NL rookie record with 8th shutout of season 1982 "Bad to the Bone" single by George Thorogood and the Destroyers first released 1983 Chicago White Sox clinch their first-ever AL West championship 1984 Brian Mulroney sworn in as Canada's 18th Prime Minister, succeeding John Turner 1984 Dwight Gooden ties the record of 32 strikeouts in consecutive games 1984 Reggie Jackson is the 13th player to hit 500 home runs 1984 USSR performs an underground nuclear test 1985 Soyuz T-14 carries 3 cosmonauts to Salyut 7 space station 1986 Bomb attack in Paris kills 6 people 1986 Marina Stepanova of USSR sets the women's 400 m hurdle record in 52.94 seconds 1986 Mets clinch NL East Championship 1986 US Senate confirms William Rehnquist as 16th Chief Justice 1987 Philadelphia celebrates 200th anniversary of Constitution 1987 Pope John Paul II arrives in San Francisco, meets with AIDS patients, and embraces an AIDS-infected child 1988 24th Olympic games open at Seoul, South Korea 1988 Jeff Reardon becomes the first pitcher to record 40 or more saves in both the American League and the National League 1989 41st Emmy Awards: "LA Law," "Cheers," Dana Delany, and Candice Bergen win 1989 Hurricane Hugo begins four-day sweep through Caribbean, killing 62 1989 Hurricane Hugo kills 85 in Charleston, South Carolina 1989 The NYC Court of Appeals overturns the lower court decision and returns the America's Cup to the US from New Zealand 1990 Newspaper Guild votes 242-35 to keep NY Post publishing 1990 Soviet Union and Saudi Arabia restore diplomatic ties 1991 4,355 turn out to see Expos play NY Mets at Shea Stadium 1991 The first version of the Linux kernel (0.01) is released to the Internet 1991 UN admits Estonia, Latvia, Lithuiania, North & South Korea, Marshall Islands & Micronesia 1992 Amsterdam Stock Exchange hits record €8.8 billion 1992 Frank Zappa conducts The Ensemble Modern in portions of his classical work "The Yellow Shark" in Frankfurt, Germany; receives a 20-minute standing ovation in what is his last public appearance 1992 House votes 280 to 128 to give FCC control over cable TV rates 1992 The NFL decides to suspend World League Football 1992 Theodore (Ted) Weiss wins the Democratic primary for the NYC congressional seat despite having died on the 14th 1993 Last Russian troops leave Poland 1994 Andy Waller outhandles the ball for Mashonaland CD against Mash U24 1996 MLB Los Angeles Dodger pitcher Hideo Nomo no-hits the Colorado Rockies 9-0 at Coors Field, the only no-hitter to date at the venue 1997 Accused wife-murder Dr. Sam Sheppard's body is exhumed for a DNA test 2000 Dan Marino 's #13 jersey is retired by the Miami Dolphins 2001 Despite suffering from lung cancer and Parkinson's disease, Jack Buck stirs emotions by reading a patriotic-themed poem during the pregame ceremonies on baseball's first night back after the September 11th terrorist attacks 2001 Major trading markets in the United States, including the New York Stock Exchange and the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), reopen for the first time since September 11 2003 Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins presents his poetry at the Art Institute of Chicago's Rubloff Auditorium 2004 SF Giants outfielder Barry Bonds hits his 700th career MLB home run, off San Diego's Jake Peavy 2004 Tamil is declared the first classical language of India 2005 Diana DeGarmo receives the Horizon Award at the Georgia Music Hall Of Fame Awards ceremony 2007 AOL, once the largest ISP in the US, officially announces plans to refocus the company as an advertising business and to relocate its corporate headquarters from Dulles, Virginia, to New York City 2008 International Astronomical Union names another dwarf planet, Haumea 2008 Japanese rock band Rentrer en Soi announces that they are breaking up 2009 TV sitcom "Community," created by Dan Harmon and starring an ensemble cast including Joel McHale, Gillian Jacobs, and Alison Brie , debuts in the US 2010 Documentary film "Who Is Harry Nilsson (And Why Is Everybody Talkin' About Him)?" is released theatrically 2010 Final episode of soap opera "As the World Turns" is broadcast, ending a 54-year run 2011 British singer-songwriter Adele 's single "Someone Like You" goes to #1 in the US; the track also tops charts in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Finland, France, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, and the UK 2011 Occupy Wall Street movement against economic inequality and the influence of money in politics begins in Zucotti Park, New York City 2012 13 people are killed in a bus accident in Jubail, Saudi Arabia 2012 China dispatches 1,000 fishing boats to Senkaku Islands 2012 Panasonic suspends operations at its three factories in China 2012 Swedish forensic scientists find no conclusive evidence of Wikileaks founder Julian Assange 's DNA in a torn condom 2012 United States and Japanese government officials agree to put a second missile defense system in Japan 2013 A train and double-decker bus collide in Ottawa, Canada, killing six people 2013 Rockstar Games releases Grand Theft Auto V action-adventure game; sales top $1 billion in just three days, and eventually exceed over 230 million units 2013 TV comedy "Brooklyn Nine-Nine," starring Andy Samberg and an ensemble cast, premieres on Fox in the US 2014 Frank Bainimarama 's Fiji First Party wins the first Fijian elections since his coup in 2006 2015 US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration reports 2015 Northern Hemisphere summer hottest on record 2016 Terror bomb in Chelsea, New York injures 29 2017 Évian Championship Women's Golf, Évian Resort GC: Anna Nordqvist of Sweden defeats Brittany Altomare on the first sudden-death playoff hole; event is reduced to 54 holes after day one is abandoned due to bad weather 2017 Wanda Metropolitano stadium, new home of football team Atlético Madrid hosts its first match (against Malaga) in Madrid, Spain 2018 50 girls treated in hospital in Kaya, Burkina Faso after illegal botched circumcisions 2018 Flooding in Nigeria kills over 100 people as Benue and Niger Rivers overflow 2018 Hurricane Florence causes 900 people to be rescued from flooding, with the death toll at 23, and the city of Wilmington isolated, officials announce 2018 Needles purposely hidden in strawberries in Australia prompt government to order an investigation 2018 US border control agent confesses to the murder of four women and assault of another in Laredo, Texas 2019 Indonesia raises the female marriage age to 19, in line with males, to curb child marriages 2019 MLB San Francisco Giants outfielder Mike Yastrzemski hits a home run in his first game at Boston's Fenway Park, the long-time home field of his grandfather Carl Yastrzemski of the Red Sox 2019 Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg tells US Congress "I know you are trying but just not hard enough. Sorry.” 2020 More than 15,000 fires have caused widespread devastation in Brazil's Pantanal wetlands in 2020, according to its National Institute for Space Research 2021 France recalls its ambassadors to the US and Australia, describing their new AUKUS pact and the cancellation of a major military contract as a "stab in the back" 2021 Netflix drama "Squid Game," created by Hwang Dong-hyuk, premieres and becomes Netflix's most-watched series, with more than 1.65 billion viewing hours in its first 28 days 2022 Cheetahs are reintroduced from Namibia to India at Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh after being extinct for 70 years [1] 2022 Protests erupt in Iran and continue for the next few days over the treatment of women after the funeral of Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old who died in morality police custody [1] 2023 British comedian Russell Brand is accused of rape, sexual assaults, and emotional abuse by four women in investigation by "The Sunday Times" and Channel 4 [1] 2024 Al-Qaeda jihadists attack the international airport complex outside Mali's capital, Bamako, leaving at least 60 people dead [1] 2024 Handheld pagers belonging to members of the armed group Hezbollah explode across Lebanon, killing nine people and injuring 2,800; Hezbollah holds Israel responsible [1] 2024 Myanmar confirms at least 226 people have died because of Typhoon Yagi, with flooding affecting over 631,000, including in the capital Naypyidaw [1] 2024 Norway becomes the first country where electric cars outnumber petrol vehicles, aided by tax rebates [1] 2025 Disney-ABC indefinitely suspends production of late night television talk show " Jimmy Kimmel Live!" after complaints about his political jokes, and threat of broadcast license revocation by FCC chairman Brendan Carr [1] Historical Events Calendar Mad Monk Burns 2,000 At The Stake September 16, 1498 Mad Monk Burns 2,000 At The Stake The Diary of a Dead Officer September 17, 1916 The Diary of a Dead Officer Arc Lamps Light the Way to World-Beating Display September 18, 1879 Arc Lamps Light the Way to World-Beating Display The First Country to Grant Women the Vote September 19, 1893 The First Country to Grant Women the Vote Search the largest and most accurate independent site for today in history.